“The years of my life, spanning from sixteen to twenty-two, were akin to a primordial era of chaos, when the Earth was in its nascent stages, and the boundaries between land and water had yet to be defined. During this time, immense amphibious creatures roamed the forests that covered the murky terrain—a time preceding the arrival of maturity. Emotions, unaware of their own nature and the purpose of their tumultuous and bewildering pursuit, continued to dwell in the untamed regions of my young soul. Just as the eruption of baby teeth causes a child to suffer from fever until they finally emerge and fulfill their purpose, our early emotions bear a similar resemblance. They torment us until we establish our genuine connection with the world.” – Tagore, Evening Songs
India is renowned for its two timeless epics, the first being the Mahabharata. The term Mahabharata derives from the combination of ‘Maha,’ meaning great, and ‘Bharata,’ signifying the story itself. Thus, the Mahabharata translates to “the great story.” Unsurprisingly, this epic holds a position of utmost reverence among the Indian people. Equally esteemed is the Ramayana, the second epic of profound significance. Gustave Le Bon, in his book on Indian civilization, aptly describes this remarkable world as the quintessence of all worlds—a comprehensive synthesis of historical stages and a sincere depiction of the fluctuating phases between early barbarism and modern civilization.
When Gustave Le Bon refers to India as the “quintessence of the earth,” it is not an exaggeration. The vast diversity of races within India encompasses the indigenous Dravidians, Tamils, and Rajputs, along with the early Aryans, Turkic Turanians, East Asians, Mongol dynasties, and even people of Arab and Persian descent, among others. The influences on India throughout its modern era have been significant, particularly during the period of English colonization that encompassed the entire country. Additionally, French colonialism left its mark on eastern India, while Portugal had an impact on the western coast. If we consider India as the core of the earth, as Le Bon suggests, then the Mahabharata can be seen as the core within this quintessence. The Mahabharata has become ingrained in the very blood and essence of the Indian people, permeating their arts, history, and literature. It touches on knights, princes, priests, wives, life and death, good and evil, and everything in between.
Jawaharlal Nehru, the brilliant intellectual, politician, and one of the key figures in shaping modern India, expressed his admiration for the enduring influence and profound impact of the two epics. He stated that he was unaware of any other book that had such a lasting effect on the minds and hearts of the common people as these epics have. Despite their ancient origins, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana continue to hold a significant place in the collective consciousness of the Indian people. These mighty epics have deeply penetrated the hearts of the Indians, and their characters, such as Krishna, Bhishma, Arjuna, Draupadi, and Yudhishthira, have become revered figures in the everyday lives of the common Indian. This can be attributed to the inherent allure of the rich Sanskrit literature and its ability to vividly embody characters and narratives. In contrast, the Upanishads, which are filled with philosophical abstractions, have traditionally been associated with the intellectual elite and philosophers who engage in mind sports.
What sets the Mahabharata apart is its predominantly masculine nature, in contrast to the feminine content of the Ramayana. While both epics hold sacred status within the Vedic canon, they differ significantly in terms of size. The Mahabharata is an expansive literary masterpiece, consisting of approximately two hundred thousand poetic verses, making it the largest epic in history. In comparison, the Ramayana is considerably smaller, reaching only a quarter of the Mahabharata’s length. The distinction between the two extends beyond mere quantity and encompasses quality as well. The Mahabharata features a multitude of heroes and intricate chapters, while the Ramayana revolves around the central narrative of Rama’s quest to rescue his wife, Sita, from captivity. If the Mahabharata explores heroism through themes of war, conflict, and mortality, the Ramayana tends to emphasize fundamental principles of life, family, education, and moral refinement. The precise time of the Mahabharata’s composition remains uncertain. Its creator, the poet and sage Vyasa, intentionally added a legendary aura to himself within the narrative, and his reputation became sacred, shrouded in mystery. Vyasa is believed to have lived in the fourth century BC, but subsequent additions to the story continued even after his death. The finalization of the Mahabharata’s form and structure did not occur until the third century AD.
Legendary Structure
Firas Al-Sawah, in his work Myth and Meaning, posits that the birth of a legend transcends the lifespan of a single generation, extending far into the future, where the story continues to evolve and gather richness. The legendary text maintains its stability over an extended period and is passed down through generations, as long as it retains its evocative power for the community. Regarding the authorship of legends, Al-Sawah argues that they do not have a specific individual author. Instead, they emerge as a collective phenomenon, created through the shared imagination, emotions, and reflections of the group. Despite this collective nature, myths are not immune to the influence of esteemed spiritual figures who may leave their mark on the narrative.
Indeed, this holds true for the Mahabharata, where Vyasa is regarded as the great author. However, beyond Vyasa, the other authors who contributed to its creation over many ages remain unknown to us. The Mahabharata is replete with a plethora of heroes, supernatural powers, and profound conflicts.
Indeed, the Mahabharata cannot be solely categorized in relation to the Ramayana. As mentioned earlier, it is an integral part of the Vedas and exists alongside the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita, which was embedded later within the Mahabharata. This epic provides insights into the pristine Aryan imagination as they migrated into northern India and established their ancient kingdoms. It delves into the nature of the Kshatriya class, comprising warriors and kings, as well as the Brahmana class, composed of priests and monks. The Mahabharata offers a depiction of the intricate dynamics and underlying harmony between these two immortal classes within Indian society.
The version used for this article was created by the late Indian President C. Rajagopalachari, also known as Rajaji, a contemporary of Jawaharlal Nehru, Mahatma Gandhi, and Rabindranath Tagore. Rajaji served in several important positions before becoming the first President of India in 1948. After retiring, he dedicated himself to rewriting the two immortal epics in his own handwriting.
Modern Epic Composition
The epic is incredibly complex, with a multitude of characters and interwoven events that defy easy summarization. However, Rajaji accomplished the remarkable feat of recreating the epic through a collection of short stories. These stories, when taken together, form the entirety of the epic and preserve its organic unity. In total, there are one hundred and six stories that recount the events of the Kurukshetra War, which was fought for the throne of the Hastinapura Kingdom. The epic is set in northern India, specifically in the state of Haryana, close to the capital city of Delhi.
The kingdom of Hastinapura was governed by two kings, Pandu and his blind brother Dhritarashtra. Pandu belonged to the Pandava lineage, while Dhritarashtra was from the Kaurava lineage. The cousins enjoyed a period of great prosperity and unmatched stability during the lifetimes of the two brothers. However, trouble began to brew following the tragic demise of Pandu. He had been cursed by a priest who accidentally killed him while hunting deer. After Pandu’s death, his five sons were left orphaned and were taken under the care of Bhishma, a nobleman and knight who was also a close relative of the family, as will be discussed in further detail. Bhishma also served as the educator to the children of the blind Dhritarashtra, particularly Duryodhana, who played a key role in igniting the war and that would cause widespread devastation.
Bhishma was aided in raising the kings’ children by the great knight Drona, who was the most skilled archer of his time. In his youth, Drona served as a priest and a scholar of the Vedas. He attained mastery in archery and excelled at it. Bhishma appointed him as a teacher to the princes, alongside himself. In the Kurukshetra War, Bhishma and Drona aligned themselves with the Kauravas, led by Duryodhana, along with Shakuni and Karna. As for the Pandavas, their noble and esteemed leader was Yudhishtira, supported by Krishna. The ranks of the Pandavas were commanded by Yudhishtira’s brother, the knight Arjuna, whose prowess played a decisive role in the war. Additionally, the mighty Bhima, who had gained the backing of the supernatural monkey Hanuman, contributed significantly to their cause.
The Pandavas, led by the decent Yudhishtira, held the rulership of the kingdom of Hastinapura. Yudhishtira’s five brothers, including the well-known Arjuna and Bhima, were also part of this ruling group. On the other side, Dhritarashtra, Yudhishtira’s cousin from the Kaurava clan, had a prominent member named Duryodhana. Duryodhana harbored resentment towards Yudhishtira and his brothers, leading him to devise a plan against them. He enlisted the help of Shakuni, a skilled gambler, to manipulate Yudhishtira. Through repeated gambling sessions, Shakuni managed to defeat Yudhishtira multiple times, causing him to lose everything he owned. Yudhishtira even wagered the well-being of his five brothers and his wife, Draupadi. When Shakuni emerged victorious, Duryodhana took advantage of the situation and banished the Pandava family to the forest. He imposed a condition that they must remain in exile for thirteen years before reclaiming their possessions.
The Pandavas fought the war with the support of Krishna, and it lasted for eighteen days. At the beginning, the Kauravas prevailed. The reason is obvious given the presence of Bhishma and Drona on their side. The former was told by fate that he would not be defeated by a man, and the latter was a saint who was blessed by Dharma (the Indians’ moral law) and he recruited many knights in the war. His wars. But the end was not in favor of the Kauravas as Krishna dictated to Arjuna (most of these teachings are found in the Bhagavad Gita) to use trickery in the war to overthrow Bhishma and Drona in battle.
Bhishma, who possessed the boon of not being killed by any man, met his demise at the hands of Shikandi, a warrior who had previously lived as a woman. As for Drona, Krishna discerned his vulnerability, which lay in his deep attachment to his son, Ashwatthama. Krishna then addressed Arjuna, saying:
“O Arjuna, defeating Drona, who strictly adheres to the laws of war, is an insurmountable challenge. We cannot emerge victorious unless we forsake the principles of Dharma. Our path is blocked, and there is only one means to compel him to cease his relentless combat – the news of his son Asuthama’s demise. Upon hearing of his beloved son’s death, Drona will lose all zest for life and willingly lay down his weapons. Hence, it is imperative for someone to disseminate the news of Asuthama’s passing.”
But how could noble warriors, who uphold the esteemed traditions of Chhatriya, resort to deception? Thus, the mighty Bhima slew a colossal elephant and named it Asuthama. He shouted this announcement in the arena, ensuring that his opponents would hear. The news eventually reached Drona amidst his soldiers, and his adversary inquired of Yudhishtira regarding the truth of Bhima’s claim. Yudhishtira replied, “Indeed, it is true.” However, in a hushed and trembling voice, he whispered, bowing his head so as not to be overheard, “It is the elephant Asuthama who has perished.” Yudhishtira employed this white lie as a means to manipulate Drona’s judgment, and the outcome unfolded as follows: Drona succumbed to despair, his limbs going limp, believing his son to be dead. He assumed a yoga posture, seated in the middle of his chariot, until one of the knights decapitated him. At that moment, the knight’s soul emerged, encircled by radiant light, before ascending into the sky to find its eternal abode.
After defeating the Kauravas, where they killed Bhishma, Drona, and Duryodhana, the Pandavas reclaimed their kingdom and lived as esteemed princes. However, Yudhishtra, despite his outward success, carried an inner burden of piety and morality. He was plagued by a constant sense of guilt towards his fallen cousins, feeling remorse for the lives he had taken. Even though he had been in the right from the beginning, his self-condemnation persisted. Yudhishtira expressed his conflicted emotions, stating, “While the kingdom has been restored to me, we have lost our dear relatives and children. This victory appears to me as a great defeat.” Meanwhile, Dhritarashtra, the elder of the Kauravas, chose a life of seclusion in the forest following the defeat of his sons. It was there that a massive fire engulfed the surroundings, and he perished in its midst.
According to the legend of the Mahabharata, the Pandavas may have been victorious and regained their kingship, but they found no joy in ruling. The memories of Bhishma, Drona, and their beloved cousins, with whom they had grown up and whose lives were lost due to their actions, haunted them constantly. Yudhishtira, as the king of Hastinapura, lived for fifteen years, yet he never found a moment of true enjoyment in his kingdom. He chose to renounce a life of luxury and accompanied his brothers—Arjuna, Bhima, Nakula, Sahadeva—and his wife, Draupadi, to the Himalayas, where they eventually met their end. The legend further adds that in Suraj, the realm of eternity, Yudhishtira had a vision of his blind uncle Dhritarashtra, Karna, Duryodhana, and all those who had perished. It was in that fleeting moment that Yudhishtira finally experienced a sense of peace.
Descendant of King Shantanu
The lineage of the Kauravas and Pandavas, along with that of Bhishma, converges in their common ancestor and great-grandfather, King Shantanu. Bhishma is the son of Shantanu and the legendary mother Ganga. He emerged from the river waters, captivating Shantanu with her beauty. Ganga imposed a condition upon Shantanu, demanding that he refrain from complying with any of her desires in return for her continued presence as his wife. She bore him several sons, intentionally submerging them in the sacred river until the birth of the eighth son. Initially named Devavrata, denoting obedience to the gods, he was later known as Bhishma, signifying his relentless commitment to fulfilling challenging promises.
Due to Bhishma’s intervention, Shantanu became estranged from Ganga as he defied her commands and clung to his son. Following this, Shantanu desired to marry another woman named Satyavati, who happened to be the daughter of a fisherman and whom Shantanu encountered walking along the banks of the Yamuna River. However, Satyavati’s father imposed a condition that any future sons born to her should inherit the throne instead of Bhishma. Sensing his father’s dilemma and confusion, Bhishma took it upon himself to please his father. He vowed to renounce marriage and progeny, ensuring that his brothers born from Satyavati would ascend to the throne as kings.
Satyavati gave birth to two sons named Chitrangada and Vichitravirya, who took turns ruling the kingdom. Additionally, Satyavati had a son named Vyasa from her previous marriage with Uparichara. Vyasa, the author of the Mahabharata, thereby connects the lineage of King Shantanu through his maternal side.
Bhishma, the man of difficult promises, lived a long life, wielding his sword and wisdom to serve his two younger brothers and maintain the stability of the kingdom of Hastinapura. Legend states that Bhishma witnessed the passing of his brothers, particularly Vichitravirya, who fathered Pandu and the blind Dhritarashtra. He also fought alongside the subsequent generation of the Kauravas, although the rightful claim to the throne belonged to the Pandavas. Pandu’s sons, however, aligned themselves with Drona and sided with the Kauravas. It should not be assumed from this that Bhishma approved of the wicked actions of Duryodhana. As an obedient and wise elder, he counseled them to avoid war and urged the Kauravas to treat the Pandavas with fairness, in these words:
“The best course of action is to warmly welcome them back and offer them an equitable share of the kingdom. This approach aligns with the wishes of the residents, who also seek a fair resolution. This is the only possible approach for us to be able to effectively uphold the dignity of our family. This is my advice.”
Throughout his long years, Bhishma upheld his honor and dutifully served his brothers, sons, and grandchildren only through rigorous and disciplined self-education. During his youth, he acquired mastery of the Vedas under the tutelage of Vasishta, honed his archery skills through the guidance of his father Shantanu, and studied poetry and sciences under Sukra. The teachings of the knightly class emphasized that knowledge, if left uncontrolled and unpreserved, easily slips from memory, while the ignorance that envelops individuals leads them to disregard virtue and become lax in its adoption. Consequently, the epic Mahabharata reprimanded the abandonment of virtue and voiced the sentiments of Bhishma and others as a reminder to people of its importance.
Observing the Pandavas’ encampment on the borders of the Hastinapura kingdom after their prolonged exile, Bhishma spoke up, urging a response to the envoy who had arrived with the Pandavas’ request to reclaim their rightful kingdom. He stated, “Fortunately, the Pandavas are safe and in good health. Despite possessing the support of numerous princes and the strength for warfare, they remain committed to seeking peace. Returning their possessions to them is not only the correct path but also the only viable solution.” Karna, Duryodhana’s right-hand man, grew incensed and vehemently denounced Bhishma’s persistent counsel. In response, Bhishma had no choice but to address him, saying, “Son of Radha, you speak in folly. Should we ignore the envoy’s plea, we will inevitably face war, a conflict we are bound to lose. The outcome will be the destruction of all, including Duryodhana.”
Bhishma’s apprehension regarding the war did not stem from a sense of personal weakness. Instead, it arose from his recognition that the Kauravas held the advantage in terms of physical strength. However, his deep sense of injustice towards the Pandavas fueled his belief that even in defeat, they could achieve a moral victory. Moreover, as the patriarch of the family, it was his responsibility to uphold fairness, restrain the impetuousness of the younger generation, and uphold the principles of Dharma. Dhritarashtra acknowledged the validity of Bhishma’s repeated warnings but, hindered by his own disability and frailty, he was unable to rein in the youthful enthusiasm and recklessness driving them towards war. Dhritarashtra turned to Bhishma and lamented, “Your words, O esteemed leader of our family, are undeniably wise. Both the wise and I understand the importance of seeking peace. However, what can I do? Despite my vocal objections, these fools persist in their obstinacy.”
The war erupted between the cousins, and Bhishma and Drona found themselves compelled and pressured to align with Duryodhana. However, Bhishma’s commitment to fulfilling the vow and oath he had made to his father, Shantanu, to safeguard the kingdom and support its ruler, regardless of their identity, left him with no choice but to stand on Duryodhana’s side. Duryodhana, placing his trust in Bhishma’s loyalty and Drona’s exceptional skills, entered the war with a sense of assurance, seemingly indifferent to the perils that loomed over the entire family.
In this case, Bhishma found himself in an internal conflict. He engaged in battle with his limbs, muscles, and mind. However, his conscience resided elsewhere, aligned with the cause of the Pandavas. Despite possessing the capability to eliminate any of the Pandava warriors, such as Yudhishthira, Bhima, and Arjuna, who were all inferior to him in strength, Bhishma chose not to harm them. Taking charge of the Kaurava forces, Bhishma emerged victorious in the initial days of the war, triumphing over the Pandava army.
Duryodhana’s Foolishness
At the onset of the war, Bhishma assumed the role of leadership among the Kauravas and addressed both armies, stating, “Let it be known that to me, the sons of Pandu are as dear as you, the sons of Dhritarashtra. In fulfillment of my commitment to you, I shall lead the army and perform my duties. Each day, my arrows shall claim the lives of ten thousand warriors on the battlefield. However, I shall refrain from harming Pandu’s children, for I do not endorse this war. Should the Pandavas be slain, I shall renounce all my obligations in this conflict.” Bhishma had been a mentor to the Pandavas prior to their exile and departure for the forest. As the noble Yudhishthira, the leader of the Pandavas, stood in the forefront, harboring hostility towards Bhishma, he approached him with these words: “O revered Grand Master, grant us permission to commence the fight. We dare to face you, the invincible and unparalleled Grand Master. We seek your blessings before the battle commences.” Bhishma held nothing but admiration for Yudhishthira’s noble character and responded, “My son, born of the lineage of Bharata, you have conducted yourself honorably, in accordance with our codes of conduct. Engage in battle, and victory shall be yours. I am bound by my duty to the king, compelling me to fight on the side of the Kauravas, but you shall not be defeated.”
Bhishma turned his attention to his own army and spoke to them, saying, “O valiant warriors, a noble opportunity lies before you. The gates of paradise stand wide open, awaiting your arrival. The joy of dwelling alongside Indra and Brahma awaits you. Therefore, follow in the footsteps of your ancestors and the path of righteousness. They fought with exuberance, attaining fame and greatness. A Kshatriya warrior does not wish to perish in sickness and helplessness on his bed, but instead prefers to meet his end on the battlefield.” Despite his advanced age and the evident signs of old age, Bhishma displayed extraordinary strength in this war. He remained true to his promise of bravery and repelled the attacks launched by the Pandavas. Bhishma had ample opportunities to kill Yudhishthira, Arjuna, Bhima, and other Pandava warriors, but he repeatedly spared them, as he had been their guardian and mentor during their youth. He did not wish to bring harm to those he had nurtured. Duryodhana grew frustrated with Bhishma’s leniency and went on to accuse him of loyalty towards the Pandavas, an act that worsened the situation.
Bhishma’s Bed of Arrows
Duryodhana’s foolish accusations had a profound impact on Bhishma, who had grown weary and disenchanted with the war and the constant confrontation with the Pandava army. He received nothing but ingratitude from Duryodhana. Bhishma’s demise arrived suddenly on the battlefield when the Pandavas discovered his vulnerable point. The sacred oath he had taken protected him from death by the hands of men, rendering him invulnerable to their swords. Thus, they sent Shikhandi, who was born a female, to engage him in combat. According to legend, Shikhandi, aided by Arjuna and other Pandava warriors, launched numerous arrows that pierced Bhishma’s body. Despite the onslaught, Bhishma did not collapse to the ground. The arrows served as a makeshift bed for him as he lay on his back, and his dying moments stretched out over several days, with a serene smile adorning his face.
Bhishma’s demise occurred on the tenth day of the war. Following his death, a series of unfortunate events unfolded for the Kauravas and their camp. Over the course of ten harrowing days, the balance of power shifted in favor of the Pandavas. However, the conclusion of the war was far from a joyous affair. Assassinations became prevalent, carried out through conspiracies, intrigues, and deceit. The cousins turned against one another, resulting in scenes of bloody violence and successive acts of betrayal. Bhishma’s death was followed by the fall of Drona, the esteemed warrior and teacher, and ultimately, Duryodhana, the leader of the Kauravas, met his fate.
The Pandavas employed deceptive tactics not only against Bhishma but also against Drona and Duryodhana. They deceived Drona by falsely informing him of the death of his son, which caused him to lose his will to fight, and then they attacked him. Similarly, they engaged in a dishonorable act by striking Duryodhana on the thighs, a violation of the rules of war, ultimately bringing him down. Bhishma, in his final moments, cursed the Pandavas for their deceitful actions and wished for the end of their rule, considering their victory to be built on treachery. As mentioned earlier, the Pandavas emerged victorious, and Yudhishthira reclaimed his kingship, fulfilling his long-held desire. However, the weight of their actions and the haunting memories of the war continued to cast a shadow over Yudhishthira’s reign. Eventually, he and his brothers renounced worldly pleasures and embarked on a journey to the Himalayas, where he eventually died.
Embracing Fate
The life story of Bhishma, as depicted in the Mahabharata, forms a significant and extensive chapter within the epic. It not only provides insights into the character of Bhishma but also delves into the details of Krishna, an ally of the Pandavas, and his teachings to Arjuna. Additionally, it sheds light on the personalities of Draupadi, her father Draupada, and the various heroic figures and heroines mentioned throughout the epic. However, the underlying lesson within this story is that in times of difficulty and turmoil, moral values and codes of conduct can become disrupted. It highlights the fact that war, despite its repugnance and humanity’s aversion to it, can sometimes be deemed necessary in order to counteract what is more sinister and evil. Reality, not human preference, ultimately determines the need for such actions. The language of this legend resonates with the words of an Arab poet:
Sometimes, e’en the stoutest soul may wane in plight,
For human resolve confronts life’s daunting might.
Through trials and triumphs, each passing day,
Empowers some while others start to sway.
Similar to Indian and Arab poets, the renowned Greek philosopher Heraclitus proclaimed, “War is the source of all things.” Likewise, the scholar Spengler asserted, “Every meaningful aspect of life emerges from the interplay of victory and defeat.” The life trajectory of the knight Bhishma, influenced by his education, asceticism, and aristocratic upbringing, exemplifies a heroic and moral inclination that did not manifest spontaneously. If we were to discuss Bhishma in a contemporary context, it would be pertinent to echo Nikolai Berdiyev’s perspective on the nobility of the soul, transcending mere social class. Berdiyev emphasizes the paramount importance of personal aristocracy and the outward manifestation of an individual’s inner life. It is primarily a question of human dignity — a tangible dignity rooted in one’s inherent qualities and talents rather than a mere symbolic representation.
Bhishma, a legendary and profoundly realistic character, personified the immense existential burden that a hero carries upon their shoulders. This weight, shaped by a challenging destiny, ultimately drained him. He met his demise in a war he did not willingly choose, yet found solace in the fact that he remained true to his oath. He relinquished his claim to the throne to safeguard the well-being of his siblings and children. However, his grandchildren disregarded his counsel and engaged in battle. Compelled by circumstances, he entered the war and made the ultimate sacrifice. Regrettably, his ally Duryodhana disowned him, while his adversary Yudhishtira extolled his virtues. This epic tale serves as a poignant reminder that “our wisdom crumbles in the face of destiny”. Such a fate resonates across countless cultures, civilizations, and histories. Albeit equal before destiny, individuals distinguish themselves through their attitudes and choices in response to it. Bhishma stands as but one example of those who opted to confront fate with total freedom and capability.
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