Introduction
I turned to literature as a means to define reality. Looking through Homer’s deifying portrayal of the world and its inhabitants, I recognized how Virgil, much like myself, had also gazed through the lens of Homer. This realization intensified my desire to encounter a discerning reader of Homer, one who would impart his unique interpretation to literature.
When it comes to reading literary epics, I approach them with great care. That’s why, for my exploration of the Aeneid, I opted for the English language due to the abundance of translations available. Among the Arabic translations, there are a few. The first is Abdel Muti Al-Shaarawi’s translation, which was collaboratively done with a group of translators from the original Latin text and reprinted by the National Center for Translation. The second translation is by Anbara Salam Al-Khalidi, a Lebanese writer who translated it from English. However, the source from which Anbara translated the Aeneid seemed to have tampered with the text, removing any trace of its poetic and epic essence. The third translation, by Mahmoud Ali Al-Ghoul, is also based on the Latin original. Unfortunately, I didn’t have access to any of these translations, due to their limited availability. Instead, I read the rendition by Alan Mandelbaum, an American poet renowned for his extensive translation work, including Homer’s epics and Dante’s Divine Comedy. Mandelbaum’s expertise, mastery of poetic meter, and vast experience in translating ancient literature convinced me that his rendition was unparalleled in capturing the true spirit of Virgil’s Aeneid.
Virgil undertook the composition of Aeneid at the behest of Emperor Augustus, following Mark Antony’s defeat in the Battle of Actium. This event marked Rome’s ascent to the cradle of the empire, and Augustus sought to immortalize it by glorifying himself and his city. Let us envision the words Augustus uttered to Virgil: “Create a poem that can rival the works of Homer.” The poet experienced a sense of pride when entrusted with the task of crafting a poem akin to the pieces of his revered teacher, works that he had absorbed since his youth. However, while these epics share similarities, they also possess distinct differences. Virgil’s epic contains a fundamental essence that sets it apart from Homer’s poems.
The Birth of the Aeneid: Virgil and Homer
Roman writers emulated the Greek literary tradition, leading to the presence of shared myths, gods, and epics. The influence of Homer’s poems held a notable presence in the Roman collective mind, as he was considered the progenitor of poetry. Virgil, like any other Roman child, absorbed Homer’s works, to the extent that he could easily recount the story of Odysseus if asked. Virgil held a deep affection for the Iliad and the Odyssey, and it was him who introduced these epics to later generations. In fact, Dante Alighieri, the renowned Italian poet, became acquainted with these ancient works only through Virgil’s writings. Virgil, being the first to be greatly influenced by Homer, incorporated from the Iliad and the Odyssey into his epic poem, the Aeneid. He structured the Aeneid into twelve cantos, dividing it into two parts. However, the said process of incorporation does not involve a direct reproduction of the stories with Roman names and settings. Instead, it involves replicating the narrative patterns of the original.
Virgil begins the Aeneid with three words that gained widespread fame in the ancient world, to the extent that they were discovered inscribed on the walls of certain caves. These three words encapsulate the entire narrative of the Aeneid: “Arma virumque cano.” The first word signifies ‘war’ and alludes to the Iliad, while the second word denotes ‘man’ and references the Odyssey.
The first section of the Aeneid portrays the departure of its protagonist, Aeneas, from the city of Troy in search of a new homeland, in contrast to Odysseus’ journey in Homer’s Odyssey. The subsequent section of the Aeneid depicts the resurgence of war after the Trojans settle in a new land, deviating from the outcome of the Trojan War. In essence, the Aeneid can be considered an inverse poem of Homer’s works. It begins with Virgil at the conclusion of the war and the destruction of Troy, picking up where the Iliad left off while the war itself remains unresolved. The Odyssey merely mentions a concluded war and the famous tale of the wooden horse, whereas Virgil portrays the actual conclusion of the war, particularly after witnessing the gods wreak havoc upon Troy. Prior to this, Aeneas encounters Hector in a dream, who entrusts him with the destiny of the Trojans, promising a new homeland and a new Troy. This encounter triggers a transformation within Aeneas’ soul, shifting him from a hero who sought a death akin to Hector’s to one who desires a homeland for his people. The Iliad and the Odyssey conclude with a sense of fulfillment enveloping the characters after their arduous journeys. Virgil follows suit in this regard, albeit with a noticeable change in the protagonist of the Aeneid compared to the heroes of the Iliad and the Odyssey. Neither Odysseus nor Achilles were entrusted with a fate beyond their individual existence.
The Hero of the Aeneid
The concept of the Homeric hero refers to a prominent figure favored by the gods in situations that demand heroic action, according to Homer’s interpretation. Homer goes beyond depicting the hero as someone who seeks immortality and glory; he implicitly includes the gods as part of their lineage. For instance, in the Iliad, when Hector returns to his wife and child, his wife tries to dissuade him from fighting. However, deep down, he desires and willingly engages in battle to defend his position as a Trojan prince and hero. Homer also emphasizes physical strength, swiftness, accuracy in weaponry, and hitting targets with precision as essential qualities of his heroes. Virgil, on the other hand, places importance on a hero’s awareness of others and his sense of duty towards them when crafting his characters. As Virgil sought to glorify Rome and the real-life hero Augustus, he identified the distinguishing factor between Roman heroes and Homeric heroes as the Roman heroes’ preference for others over themselves. The virtue of piety is always associated with the name Aeneas, and it extends beyond religious devotion to encompass societal and interpersonal aspects. Roman piety encompasses four responsibilities: duty towards the gods, duty towards the state, duty towards the family, and duty towards fellow citizens. The self is not assigned a specific duty, unlike Homer’s heroes who primarily prioritize their own interests. However, Aeneas’s Roman heroism is not solely defined by these qualities. Aeneas is depicted praying for the soul of his father and, more broadly, for the souls of those who came before him. Additionally, Aeneas does not initiate conflict but fights in self-defense and protection of his people, unlike the Homeric heroes who often initiate hostilities regardless of the rightness of their cause. The Aeneid distinguishes itself from Homer’s epics by its emphasis on tragedy in the first section. This marks Virgil’s initial deviation from Homer, who typically portrays his world through heroic templates such as Achilles’ superiority over Hector or Odysseus’ victory over the Cyclops Polyphemus. The Aeneid does not include mythical creatures like nymphs or cyclopes but focuses on events that highlight the hero’s human side more than their divine attributes. While Aeneas’s mother is the love goddess Venus, her role is less pivotal compared to Athena’s significance for Odysseus. Although the Romans generally held a disdain for theater and actors due to their association with slavery and lower social status, Virgil deviates from this norm in his epic, recognizing the importance of theater. When Aeneas arrives in Carthage and recounts his story to the queen, she falls in love with him, and they find comfort in marriage and leisure. Aeneas appears content in this chapter, which marks a rare occurrence of happiness at the heart of the epic, perhaps the one and only instance. This particular episode introduces a tragic element to the hero’s journey.
Does the reader believe that Aeneas is a genuine hero as portrayed by Virgil? It is evident that he prioritizes his own interests over those of his people in this situation. Virgil presents the gods’ intervention as the sole resolution to the predicament: firstly, to remind Aeneas of his role as the progenitor of the Romans, and secondly, to guide him back to the path of righteousness, which entails fulfilling his obligations and displaying piety towards others. Aeneas departs without informing his beloved, Dido, who is left devastated and resorts to self-immolation, condemning the entire lineage of Aeneas. The composer Henri Purcell even composed an opera titled Dido and Aeneas, which vividly portrays the tragic plight of the lovers through Dido’s mournful lamentation.
Was it necessary for Virgil to include such a tragic episode at the core of his epic, especially considering its impact on the dignity of the Romans? In this instance, we witness the immense power of the poet as both a skilled craftsman and a philosopher. Virgil skillfully raises implicit inquiries within the lines of the Aeneid, inquiries that even Augustus, had he lived a thousand years, would struggle to address. These inquiries include fundamental questions such as: What is the nature of the connection between the living and the deceased? A question that Christianity would later provide an answer to, following Virgil’s time. What accountability does an individual bear after death? Dante meticulously addressed this query in his poetry. Does injustice find justification? Virgil explicitly points a finger at Augustus, prompting further questions that subsequent writers have explored since the era of Virgil.
The End of the Aeneid and its Main Theme
The poet Alexander Pope once said: “Homer makes us hearers, and Virgil leaves us readers,” this quote piqued my interest, as it compared Homer to Virgil. Upon completing the Aeneid, I often found myself pondering what Pope meant by ‘readers.’ The answer, I discovered, lies within the realm of poetry. I mean, what enables a poet to have a distinct vision, to convey what they have witnessed with their own eyes or experienced through the historical context of their time? Virgil possessed a profound understanding of the art of poetry, drawing inspiration from the greatest poet before him, as well as incorporating his knowledge of Greek philosophy, skillfully merging these two influences, resulting in a dualistic composition. Wherever this chapter and this vision exist, we encounter two distinct poems. The first poem extols the glory of Augustus and his empire, while the second poem offers criticism. Virgil contemplates the cost that Rome paid in constructing this monumental civilization—how many Carthages it crushed and how many Didos it destroyed. He even directs his criticism towards Augustus himself, portraying his hero Aeneas as a figure who transports his family and people to a civilization founded on the unchecked loss of life. This critique becomes evident in the concluding sections of the Aeneid. I am uncertain whether Virgil intended to continue his poem beyond its twelfth canto or not. The ending holds significance, marked by a palpable horror stemming from the poet’s interpretation of Roman history. In Virgil’s Aeneid, following his Iliad, Turnus pleads for forgiveness from Aeneas, imploring him not to kill him. Aeneas pauses momentarily, then suddenly becomes consumed by anger, akin to Achilles, and the poem concludes with Turnus’s head rolling on the ground. The only reason we can express gratitude to Augustus is that he preserved the draft of the Aeneid, as its author had contemplated burning it. Perhaps Augustus feared that the implicit criticism of Rome and its emperor within the text would be brought to light. However, he was mistaken, for the Romans had no choice but to embrace the Aeneid as their national epic, competing with the collection amassed by Homer.
Conclusion
Virgil’s composition of the Aeneid was driven by his firsthand experience of history. He utilized poetry as a liberating medium through which he could freely express his thoughts, even under the auspices of a ruler. It held the emperor accountable as a human being and shed light on the tragic plight of oppressed minorities subject to unjust governance. The Aeneid marked a pivotal moment in Western literature, itsauthor served as a primary source of inspiration for numerous poets, including Dante, Milton, and others. Poet Thomas Eliot went so far as to declare it the epic of all of Europe, acknowledging Virgil’s central position among classical poets and asserting that no other poet could usurp or share that distinction. Virgil’s noteworthy contribution to literature lies in his redefining of the hero archetype, exemplified by the character of Aeneas—a hero driven by a noble cause.
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