Recently, there has been a large number of historical and cultural research and studies that delved into the field of Art History seeking to interpret European art during the Golden Age through a different lens: on the one hand, we can find historical interpretations aiming to prove the emergence of globalization in European paintings ever since the dawn of the 16th century. These Historical interpretations include detailed analyses of the strength of the European economy during that century. Whereas on the other hand, we find political interpretations that carry a critical post-colonial element that argues for the existence of a tight link between art and colonialism in the Golden Age. There is no doubt that these studies highlighted some key factors that broadened the horizons for European artists and their creative experience, they also made significant contributions to the field by adding important historical and political context, but most importantly, they gave it a distinctively unique style which elevated the arts of Realism and Still life in the European — and more specifically, the Dutch art scene.
In my attempt to study the works of the Dutch painter Johannes Vermeer (1632-1675) and examine his paintings through the Arab lens, I present this short study about the Dutch artist who has been the subject of hundreds of historical, cultural, and political studies revolving around his 35 paintings that were discovered a century after his passing. Nine of Vermeer’s famed paintings featured Oriental components that were beautifully painted with his brush strokes. The paintings included elements such as: Turkish, Persian, and Damascus rugs, Chinese Porcelain, Japanese silk robes, among others.
In this article, I will discuss the age-old question about the contemporary interpretations of European art through Vermeer’s paintings: Did these interpretations contribute to our understanding of European art from an artistic perspective? Or do they distract us from his painting’s artistic values that undoubtedly hold a lot of weight in Art History with their ideological inclinations?
While I argue that Vermeer presented the different Oriental elements in his paintings because of their aesthetic values, and I say that according to what historical documents have revealed, the question remains: Can we separate the visual aesthetic values in those paintings from the effects of power and colonialism during that era?
In professor Julie Hochstrasser’s book Still Life and Trade in the Dutch Golden Age (2007), we can find detailed critical analyses of the elements of Dutch paintings. Professor Hochstrasser explains that the paintings portray the cultural means out of which they were formed, and based on that she directs a Marxist criticism of Dutch paintings as an example of the origination of early capitalism and consumerism in the Dutch society. In her book, she carefully analyzes the products and elements that make up these paintings through a historical claim of all the social contexts that present these products in the paintings, and how significant they are to the Dutch audience both in reality and in art. She also claims that Dutch capitalism flourished through the economic control over the world at the time. In the Golden Age, Dutch trade was at its peak, therefore, we can credit the appearance of Oriental products in Dutch paintings as a preliminary of materialism that rooted itself ever since.
For example, in one of those paintings there is the symbolic presence of a lower working-class dark-skinned man serving white skinned people of a higher social class. According to the book, this is proof of the colonial state that captured the spirit of that era and appeared in European paintings (Figure 1). Hochstrasser had some moral judgements on such paintings, claiming that such elements were not captured naturally and spontaneously, but were deliberately and pridefully presented on the Dutch table: a move to highlight the economic dominance they had over the rest of the world.
This interpretation adds new meaning to Dutch paintings, like the works of Vermeer and other Dutch artists at that time. According to historical tracing and documents about the artist’s life which convey a lot about his life and the circumstance under which he produced his 35 paintings, there is a question that lingers without any definite answer: How can we confirm that the artist’s message through his paintings was to boast about owning such elements, and if proven, why paint them in an age where there is no historical evidence to support anything?
Historically, we cannot be sure about the artist’s purpose of depicting the Oriental elements and products without proof. For example, Interpreting Vermeer’s paintings through the Marxist lens causes us to be reluctant to consider art as a political tool. Thus, through the historical tracing of Vermeer’s personal and social life as documented by the French art historian John Michael Montias in 1998, we can be sure that the artistic experience through history is nothing but a temporary phenomenon that exists within its own reality, but at the same time, it refuses to be reduced to only that reality, or any ideology that tries to interpret it. Vermeer’s paintings show that an artist can only interact with his own reality, though for purely aesthetical reasons, he is urged to take advantage of the moment and internal experience to have a broader human reality.
Vermeer’s Hat is a book by Timothy Brook, published in 2008, it offers world-class historical perspectives in the 17th century. In his book, Brook presented the Dutch economic history through Vermeer’s paintings, and linked that to the emergence of economic globalization since the beginning of the 16th century. Unlike Hochstrasser’s approach, Brook tries to enter Vermeer’s world to explain the approach that draws attention towards the Dutch artist since his time, and the importance of considering the aesthetics of art that is produced by different nations around the world. Through his historical analysis, he reflects on Vermeer’s vision, interests, and education, as well as the extent to which the Dutch society shifts towards concepts of openness and communication that are fostered by the business exchanges and the creation of multinational companies.
According to Timothy Brook, we must wonder: Is the detailed outer reflection on spherical and glass surfaces in some of Vermeer’s paintings a symbolic, artistic prediction to his view that the world is small, and that one day we will be able to surround it from every side? Or did Brook interpret Vermeer’s paintings this way simply because that was how he wanted to see the world at the time, justifying his claim with all the Oriental products that prove vital and early economic relationships linking the east to the west in Vermeer’s paintings.
Montias – who is one of the most significant art historians to analyze and document Vermeer’s paintings – emphasized the artist’s focus on the aesthetic composition of these elements more than he ever cared about the political and economic directions: “the choices that Vermeer played on these realistic elements, much like most of his contemporaries, were necessary to enhance the beauty of composition, providing a greater appearance than the reality.” (1989, p. 193)
Rugs and Carpets in European Paintings:
Madonna and Child with Two Angels and a Donor – Giovanni di Paolo – ca. 1445
The Feast of Acheloüs, Peter Paul Rubens (Flemish, Siegen 1577–1640 Antwerp)
According to some research in European art history, Oriental rugs were first introduced into European art in the mid-14th century. It was first portrayed through the religious lens, which depicted the textile under the Madonna’s (The Virgin Mary) feet in religious Italian paintings, like in one of the paintings by the Italian painter Giovanni Di Paolo (1454) showing an Anatolian rug in rich oriental colors, and geometric embroidery that has always been unique to Turkish textile (Figure 2). According to Greek mythology and legends, precious cloaks would be spread under Christ’s feet, which was a religious adaptation that originated from old cultural concept that originated when Sir Walter Raleigh laid his cloak across a puddle so that the queen could walk across without getting her feet wet, after that event, it turned to a symbol of wealth, power, and holiness in Italian paintings ever since the 14th century.
In the Golden age, after Dutch ships carried precious oriental goods from the east on board thanks to the various multi-national alliances and trades that strengthened Dutch economy after it split from Spain in 1579, and when the artistic direction geared towards the Dutch Interior Scene and Still Life which characterize the realism movement of art in the Golden Age, and simultaneously presented a visual challenge in trying to capture reality and portray it with the highest levels of details; rugs and carpets maintained their artistic, monetary, and sentimental value to the Dutch, and they were a symbol of power and wealth in Dutch paintings, just as they were in Italian paintings, but it was depicted in an image that contrasted the Italian portrayal of the textile (Figure 3). Rugs in Dutch paintings were displayed strewn on tables rather than the ground, or under feet, and that signified different meanings in Dutch art such as: Development and education, some of them contained Kufic writings and eastern symbols that were only drawn to highlight one’s knowledge of them. Portraying items from the east became somewhat of a proof to signify the independence of the Dutch identity, which at the time was seeking different manifestations that would help it adopt a new independent cultural identity to match its Colonial Empire.
The carpets and rugs depicted in European art, starting from the 14th century up until the 19th, are diverse and plenty, showing the different countries and cultures they came from, and it is important to note that after being depicted in a European painting, the piece of textile would then be known by the artist’s name, an example to that is the ‘Lotto Carpet’ after Italian painter Lorenzo Lotto (1540) or ‘Holbein Carpet” after the German Hans Holbein (1498) and other similar cases.
Girl Reading a Letter at an Open Window, Johannes Vermeer, 1695
A Girl Asleep, Johannes Vermeer, 1658
The Music Lesson, Johannes Vermeer, 1665
Going back to Johannes Vermeer, who is considered to be one of the most important artists in the Golden Age, we find that in nine of his paintings, he portrays three different types of oriental carpets: the first is the well-known Turkish carpet adorned with embroidery of Ushak medallions, then there is the Persian rug, made famous with its prints of florals randomly or neatly spread across the rug, lastly, there is the Damascus rug which also has plants and beautiful florals in striking eastern colors, softer than the previous two. Out of all of these, the Turkish Ushak carpets won the lottery when it comes to European paintings as it was depicted in four of Vermeer’s paintings: Girl Reading a Letter to an Open Window (Figure 4), A Girl Asleep (Figure 5), and The Music Lesson (Figure 6). According to research, the famous Ushak carpet was painted repeatedly around the same time it was produced, and there is only one of those carpets that survived the years, displayed in the MET Museum of Arts in New York (Figure 7).
Ushak Medallion Carpet, 16th century
Vermeer, along with two other artists of his time – the two artists being Gerard Ter Borch (Figure 8) as well as Gerard Van Honthorst – included this type of Ushak medallion carpets in their paintings. In fact, this Ushak medallion carpet was also found in other artists’ work with the same colors and designs in The Procuress 1656 painting, which confirms that it was a real rug that existed in that era. From a historic aspect, trying to answer the question of: “Why this carpet specifically?” has many answers: from an aesthetic view point, the depiction of the precise geometric and floral designs of the carpet enhances the style used in the era, heavily focused on the use of visual illusions in order to create a vision that closely resembles reality to its finest details, and that is noticeable in the precision and organization of composition in the Still Life Dutch art movement.
Another answer focuses on the geography: Oriental rugs entered the Netherlands through business campaigns led by the Dutch East India Company, and the demand witnessed a rapid increase. So, we can assume that the abundance of these carpets in the Dutch market was one of the reasons that led these artists to paint the carpet, especially considering how the art scene, and seeing the product in painting, usually influences the wealthy to consume.
A Woman playing a Lute to Two Men. Gerard ter Borch 1667–1668
Furthermore, Montias (1989) states that when Vermeer’s house was cleaned out after his death, two cloaks were found, a black one that belonged to Vermeer himself, and the other belonging to his late father, and alongside these cloaks, there was a pair of Turkish trousers, and two paintings in the Turkish style. As we can see, there was a link between Vermeer, and Turkish goods that resulted from the painter’s appreciation of Turkish textile, and it was aided by the fact that his father was a textile and fine fabric tradesman, which can explain his deep appreciation for the craft of textiles. In addition to that, the repeated geographical patterns in Oriental rugs goes hand in hand with Vermeer’s perspective in painting which adds a dimensional depth and visual illusions to the Dutch Realist style.
Adding to what was mentioned above, all studies of art history affirm that Johannes Vermeer did not own any luxurious rugs, as none was found in his house after his passing; Vermeer was poor. Documentations show that he did not paint to reach a high status and wealth. In fact, all evidence suggests that it was just a period in which Vermeer and other artists shared an aesthetical interest to portray the carpets in their paintings. At the same time, there is no historical document that suggests that Vermeer had painted them according to the requests of some patrons at the time, nor did he do it for the art trade scene which was active at the time.
The Geographer
The Astronomer
Modern aesthetic theories reject all interpretations linking art to functional, missionary, or educational notions: an artist cannot cause a change, even if he is influential. Art can be many things, it can be paradoxical, or abstract, it can be provocative, or melancholic: but never functional or educational. Adopting the principle of art for artwork is not an easy path for the historic mindset, even for the western context in this contemporary period.
Therefore, the interpretations of art in the Golden Age may convince us that what the artists depicted from carpets or any Oriental elements in their artwork was motivated by the aesthetical aspects of an unusual item, no matter if eastern or western. There is no doubt that cultural interpretations in the field of art history aid our perception of the painter’s life and historical context, but these interpretations cannot prove any purpose other than the grandeur of the aesthetics. For instance, in Vermeer’s paintings: The Geographer (Figure 9) and The Astronomer (Figure 10) we can see how Vermeer depicted comprehensive mental drama in scenes that feature a scientist that seeks to understand the distant world in the 17th century. In both paintings, Vermeer included oriental rugs, one of them (Figure 10) is a Persian rug with traditional floral weavings in natural colors, draped over a desk along with an astronomy book, and a globe that is being maneuvered by the astronomer’s hand (Antonie van Leeuwenhoek). The presence of the rug on the table along with these other elements can be interpreted in many ways, the most prominent interpretation is the intrigue and scientific appreciation that the man had towards these elements. In The Geographer (Figure 9), Vermeer paints a Damascus rug which was rare in Europe around that time. The rug is woven with floral designs, and a border with even more intricate weavings with elaborate colors that portray the spirit of the east. In both paintings, Vermeer adorned the walls with geographical maps that historians later discovered to be intricately accurate and rare, originally drawn by famous cartographers in the era. Arthur K. Wheelock, who is considered one of the most important art historians, worked on a major project through which he analyzed Vermeer’s paintings, and reached the conclusion that one of these maps was lost, and later redrawn according to its depiction in Vermeer’s painting.
Finally, all these details, and more, about Vermeer’s paintings reinforce the views that say: The aesthetic aspect revealed by the elements in Vermeer’s paintings show us the perspective of an artist that depicted the elements of reality with their expressive concepts of beauty, and knowledge of them, which were key features of the 17th century. The analyses also confirm that the artist was forming the Dutch artistic identity and establishing Still Life as an art genre which gained momentum after the 19th century, while simultaneously, with the involvement of his contemporaries, he painted domestic interior scenes of middle-class life which is unique to the Dutch art scene till this very day.
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